Ways in Which a Societys Expectations Affects Self and Societys Perceivedness of a Person

To understand and evaluate a society’s expectations of a person, the need to know what composes or constitutes a society arises. This evokes the question, what is a society? According to Sinclair and Helen, a society is described as consisting of people in a particular country who share a common past, or heritage and culture. They give an example of the United Kingdom, France and the United States being parts of British, French and American societies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ways in Which a Society’s Expectations Affects Self and Society’s Perceivedness of a Person specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There are within each society diverse and distinct communities, which people belong to (Sinclair Grant 7). In this regard, in a society, a complex relationship exists among people of different stereotypes categorized into racial, ethnic, societal class and gender (Andersen Taylor 276). A s ociety’s expectations in this context would imply what people who share common characteristics expect from each other. This article attempts to explore ways in which a society’s expectations of a person based on the above stereotypes, affects how the society perceives them and how they perceive themselves. Gender and Society’s Expectations Beginning with gender stereotypes, that is, those based on an individual’s gender, there are different perceptions regarding both genders. Among women, the stereotypes are expected to be more negative than those about men. In various societies, the typical woman has been referred to as subservient. This means that their usefulness is regarded as inferior compared to men. Other traditional stereotypes about women include; overly-emotional, talkative, incompetence at math and science and flighty. These are mostly cultural, and such stereotypes have been conveyed by various media fraternities e.g. newspapers, magazines and broadcasts. As a result, women have become in certain instances, very prone to hysteria. Men on the other hand, though their portrayal is less negative than in women, are painted and portrayed as too macho, hardheaded, insensitive and generally only interested in having sex. The society perceives women to be incompetent, especially in developing countries, and as a result there exists lack of support for women. This is also evident in advanced states where due to low fertility and low levels of gender equality, the efforts to relate employment and childrearing among women lacks support and is neglected by the society. In this regard, men are viewed as the sole breadwinner of the family, thus the retention of gender oriented responsibilities and obligations within a family (McDonald 427). For instance, in United States, amendments to the Income Tax Act ensure that the income tax office personnel communicate only with the male counterpart, even on matters involving the wife. Examinat ions in schools show that boys are no more intelligent than girls.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The society has, in so speaking seen the light; and programs that were previously offered to boys only are now being offered to girls too. As a result, women now perceive themselves as equally intelligent and capable as their male counterparts. Social Class and Society’s Expectations A person’s social class status is another tool which a society uses to portray and rate levels of expectations of a person. Social class stereotypes are categorized into; Low class people, middle and working class people and upper class people. The society perceives low class people as incapable of improving themselves. The society expects them to live in unsanitary conditions; living in slums and being unproductive. Such people feel demoralized and neglected, and as a result growth in su ch cases is minimal. Middle class people are stereotyped as being overly ambitious and obsessive. Unmotivated and lazy, this is how the upper and middle class people perceive working class individuals. The upper class individuals also perceive the lower class individuals as violent, dirty and incompetent. The upper class people are considered as condescending, snooty and phony. Expectations therefore differ accordingly, and upper class individuals are expected to bring more to the table than the rest. Therefore, the lower class individuals feel left out and demoralized, middle and working class individuals feel less important, while the upper class individuals feel like the world rests on their palms. Race and Ethnicity and Society’s Expectations In the past centuries, Africans in European and American countries were perceived as inherently lazy. The ill thought of people of a certain ethnic group without any regards is called ethnic prejudice. Most individuals disavow ethnic prejudice, yet most societies carry some prejudices. Racial-ethnic prejudice occurs when for example, an American dislikes an African only because of the color of their skin. This kind of prejudice is brought about by the belief that one’s group is superior to all other groups, and this is called Ethnocentrism. Research show that such prejudice is learnt from all levels of socialization; from primary to tertiary. For many years, Africans, African Americans, Hispanics and Asians were presented in the media only in negative stereotyped roles. Chinese were perceived as buffoons, Japanese as untrustworthy, Hispanics as ruthless and the black person portrayed as subservient and lazy. The society’s expectations then for such ethnic groups were of a negative nature. The worldwide disapproval of such ethnic groups led to poor and slow growth among the people. In the past, racial differences have been used to justify and legitimate prejudice and discrimination. According to Ho ward and Michael, the terms such as race were no longer used and instead the use of the term ethnicity was more frequent (48).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ways in Which a Society’s Expectations Affects Self and Society’s Perceivedness of a Person specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The use of ethnicity is now embraced in place of race. Ethnicity in the advanced countries is now perceived as cultural difference- the way people dress, political views and the like. Discrimination based on racial-ethnic prejudice has been in the form of; income discrimination, discrimination in education, housing discrimination and discrimination in employment and promotion. Attempts by studies, public and international organizations, such us the United Nations, to reduce the effects of discriminations have been successful in many countries like the United States of America. For example, under U.S. law, housing discri mination is illegal. Since the 1950s, overt racism has declined significantly though it has not completely disappeared. Aversive racism has remained and is quite common in many societies. Overt racism involves physical assaults while aversive racism involves avoiding interactions. Conclusion Many of a society’s beliefs and expectations are now going counter to traditions and nature. Homosexuality, which was traditionally forbidden by the society and illegal, is now in many countries, legalized and accepted by the society. Intersex change, which was unimaginable in the past, is now being conducted and many societies are learning to accept it. To go beyond our society’s expectations is dangerous as we are referred to as odd. For example, being an atheist is against the norms of a certain society and such people are viewed as traitors. The principle of stereotype interchangeability therefore holds from one social class to another, from one racial group to another and from one gender to another, and also from a social class to a gender, from a racial group to a gender. Works Cited Andersen Margaret L., Taylor Howard F. Understanding a Diverse Society. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning Press, 2005. Print. Grant Helen, Sinclair Stephen., Sinclair P. Stephen. People in society: modern studies. Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thornes Press, 2003. Print.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Howard Winant and Michael Omi. Racial Formation in the United States. New York: Routledge, 1994. Print. McDonald, Peter. Gender Equity in Theories of Fertility Transition. Population and Development Review. Vol 26, Issue 3, pages 427-439, 2004. Print. This essay on Ways in Which a Society’s Expectations Affects Self and Society’s Perceivedness of a Person was written and submitted by user Averie W. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Psychology Essays

Psychology Essays Psychology Essay Psychology Essay Discussions Name: Course: Date: Chattel 1950 A sentiment structure is deeper, more widely ramifying in the personality, usually established earlier, and accompanied in its function by more emotion Chattel, 1946. It is an environmental-mold source trait because it derives from external social and physical influences. A sentiment is a pattern of learned attitudes that focuses on an important aspect of life, such as persons community, spouse, occupation, religion, or hobby. Attitudes An attitude is more transient and emotionally more superficial. It arises from the impact of a sentiment upon a particular situation Chattel, 1946. Chattel defined attitudes as our interests in our and our emotions and behaviors toward some person, object, or event. As Chattel applied the term, it does not refer exclusively to an opinion for or against something, which is a commonplace usage of the word attitude. Substantiations that within the personality some elements subsidiaries, or are subordinate to, other elements. Attitudes are subsidiary to sentiments; sentiments are subsidiary to ergs. These relationships are expressed by Chattel in what he called the dynamic lattice. Schultz and Schultz 2005 Dynamic Lattice Our motivating forces, the ergs are listed at the right. Sentiments are indicated in the circles at the center of the diagram. Note that each sentiment is subsidiary to one or more ergs. The attitudes, at the left show the persons feelings and behaviors toward an object. Chattels Approach to Personality Traits Traits -TO Chattel, traits are reaction tendencies, derived by the method Of factor analysis, that are rel atively permanent parts of the personality. Common Traits possessed in some degree by all persons. Unique traits Traits possessed by one or a few persons. Us reface traits Traits that show a correlation but do not constitute a factor because they are not determined by a single source. Source traits Stable, permanent traits that are the basic factors of personality, derived by the method of factor analysis. Source traits are classified by their origin as either constitutional traits or environmental mold traits. Constitutional Traits Source traits that depend on our physiological characteristics. Environmental- mold traits Source traits that are learned from social and environmental interactions. Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality After more than two decades of intensive factor-analytic research, Chattel identified 16 source traits as the basic factors of personality (Chattel, 1965). These factors are best known in the form in which they are most often used, in an objective personality test called the Sixteen Personality Factor (16 PR) Questionnaire According to trait theory, human personality is composed of a number of broad traits or dispositions. Raymond Chattel was able to use a statistical technique known as factor analysis to identify traits that are related to one another. By doing this, he was able to reduce his list to 16 key personality factors. There is a continuum of personality traits. In other words, each person contains all of these 1 6 traits to a certain degree, but they might be high in some traits and low in others. The following personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms used for each of the 1 6 personality emissions described by Chattel. 16 Personality Factors (1 APP) HIGH SCORES LOW SCORES Stages of Personality Development Chattel proposed six stages in the development of personality covering the entire life span. Stage Age Development Infancy Birth-?engaging; toilet training formation Of ego, superego, and social attitudes Childhood- 6-14 Independence from parents and identification with peers Adolescence 14-23 Conflicts about independence, self-assertion, and sex Maturity 23-?50 Satisfaction with career, ma ridge, and family Late maturity-50-65 Personality changes in response to physical ND social circumstances Old age 65 Adjustment to loss of friends, career, and status Trait Approach STRENGTHS It supports the general image in the society that leaders are a special kind of people who can do extraordinary things. People have a need to see their leaders as gifted people, and the trait approach fulfills this need. WA second strength is that the trait approach has a long research tradition and a significant body of research data that support this approach. V The trait approach focuses only on the leader and analysis very thoroughly this component in the leadership process. The trait approach has given us mom benchmarks for what we need to look for if we want to be leaders. V Descriptive emphasis; assessment; intuitively appealing; involves a lot of research; provides a Way to evaluate attributes Elapsing why many characteristics of people do not change and it allows you to predict some behavior with fair accuracy. The approach is very scientific and has greatly influenced psychology. WEAKNESSES Lack of explanation; measurement of traits is difficult; ignores situational factors; poor reliability due to ones constant change in behavior LAP That in its purest theoretical form it doesnt permit much change and it appears stagnant.

An Argument in Favor of Using School Funding to Promote Social Studies Instead of Improving Food Service

An Argument in Favor of Using School Funding to Promote Social Studies Instead of Improving Food Service Should school funding be used for promoting social studies or improving food service? There is a famous Korean saying, â€Å"Money doesn’t grow off a tree.† This is a common saying that I have heard all throughout my life from my grandfather. He wanted me to know that people should use their money wisely. Therefore, I believe that school funding should be used for promoting social studies instead of improving food service for the following reasons: occupation and education. To begin with, the promotion of social studies would give students a head start in getting a high-paying job in the future. For instance, my best friend Tony is attending a school where all the funding is spent on providing social studies book for the students. After this policy came into place, the graduates had expressed that the social studies had helped them with their job interviews. These classes also gave the companies the idea that students had a better understanding of the society around them. On the other hand, my sister goes to a school where the entire fund is spent toward improving food service. Because the emphasis is towards food facilities instead of education the students became only enthusiastic in looking forwards to lunch sessions. My sister complains because, she should be learning more about the society so she can get into a better university. She claims that this will help her attain her dream job as a diplomat. Furthermore, spending the school fund on social studies would provide a better education for the students. For example, after my school began getting a fund from the government, we spent the money on hiring the most well- educated teacher from the entire world. This has given our students the opportunity to work with the best teacher and gave up new education opportunities. However, before our school was funded none of the students could keep up with the classes because our social studies teacher was actually an economics professor. Funding helped establish classes for the respective subjects, such as ethics, macroeconomics, geography, that are subordinate in the general social studies subject. Because the general objective of a school is to provide a decent education for students, doing this will make the school superior and true to the idea of a school. Therefore it would open educational opportunities for students if the school were inclined to spend their funding on promoting soc ial studies. Therefore, I believe education and occupation are the reasons I think that the school should spend funding on promoting social studies. There are some people who say that funding for food services would permit the students to keep a healthier diet. However, this is not the role of a school, and it is best for schools to stick to education. Think of the basic roles of whatever should be done, and spend your money wisely.

Homework 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Homework 2 - Essay Example to day communications among all team members of the project to come up with various creative ideas on how to develop the software according to their goals and preferences of the organization. They recognize that customers can always change their minds about what they want. The scrum master enables the organization to use scrum effectively. They act as an intermediary between the development team and any distracters. They ensure that the scrum process is used as intended because they are the enforcer of the rules of scrum. They chair any crucial meetings and challenge the team members to improve in their developments. There is no role manager in a scrum project since it is not required. All the traditional roles that belong to a project manager have been carefully divided into three scrum roles and reassigned to the developmental team and product owner rather than to the scrum master. Conducting scrum project with a project manager results into conflicting responsibilities, unclear results authority (Rubin

Nightingale Scholarship Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nightingale Scholarship - Personal Statement Example onely who need someone to attend to their needs, such as the paralytic who cannot move on their own, or the elderly who suffer from arthritis, thus cannot move about. I have a personal inspiration to become a nurse because of my caring and compassionate heart. this humanitarian heart allows me to listen to sick people, as well as feel their pain in order to assist them to them recover from their illnesses My inspiration to become a nurse started developing when in was still in high school whereby I was an EMT. As such, I worked as a medical ambassador by taking good care of patients. It was during this time that I also learned how to conduct a CPR, how to treat patients, as well as how to undertake a number of first aid practices at UIC Medical Center. This ushered me into the world of medicine, and particularly in to nursing as I learnt how to care and attend to sick

Spring 2012 WOU Dance Concert Essay Example for Free

Spring 2012 WOU Dance Concert Essay Attending the Spring Dance concert was a fun learning experience. I am glad that this was a required assignment for this dance class because if it was not required I am sure I would not have attended . The variety of dances have taught me different things, and one of them is that you do not have to do complex moves in order to dance. The dance I have decided to write about is Voicing Acceptance choreographed my Nancy Sorensen. There are many reasons why I have chosen to do my paper on this specific dance. I will discuss how the sound or movement, lighting,movement and females/males contribute to the overall success of the dance piece. First, I will discuss the message of the dance piece and how the sound/music contribute to the achievement of dance piece . The dance was about students expressing their feelings towards dance. Each of them did a recording of them speaking and that recording was played at the While the recording was playing the student was dancing. I like the sound and music because it supported the dance. The dance just as the music and sound was soft and emotional. The students were really good at expressing the music and what they feel with facial expressions. For example some of them were smiling and some were serious. The dance piece supports the title because hey are voicing their personal opinion on why they are attracted to dance.As the sound was playindg there was a pattern I saw which was that every student would dance as their recording was playing. The lighting on stage made this dance piece be even better. The lighting during the dance was great. When everyone was dancing the light was constant. But, when a particular student was dancing they would use a spot light on him or her. I really liked the idea of putting a spot light on each student when their recording was playing, because we as the could identify the student. While the student was dancing the lights were pointed towards him/her. Their dancing was both imaginative and communicative. I think that it was imaginative because you hadhave to imagine what each movement was about, while at the same time was communicative, because they were telling the audience what they felt and they were also communicating through body language. For example, when a student was dancing he used his arms and it went well with the sound and music. The movement of their hands was soft and it was slow just like the music. The idea of incorporating females and males into the dance helped this dance piece be great. In the recording a student said that many people stereotype dance. They said that dance is only for females, but Voicing Acceptance proved that this is wrong, anyone can dance. Having females and males gave the dancers the opportunity to have a partner and together they were able to express what they felt. In conclusion, definitively my favorite dance was voicing acceptance by Nancy Sorensen. throughtout my paper I have explained why I think how the sound or movement, lighting,movement and females/males contribute to the overall success of the dance piece. Overall the dance concert was great. I got the opportunity to enjoy different types of dances. This dance made me really emotional. I loved the way each student expressed themselves; I was almost going to cry. I believe that one of the purposes of this dance was to get in the audiences heart and it really did.

teenage alcoholism :: essays research papers

Socraric Method The Socratic Method of philosophy is basically a series of question leading to an answer. In order for this method to work though, two conditions must be met. The first one is that the interlocutor has to say what he believes. The second is that the answers must be kept short. Here is a classic example of how this method works. It is a dialogue between Socrates and Euthyphro. The thesis is â€Å"What is dear to the gods is pious, what is not is impious.† Next Socrates gets Euthyphro to agree to the following points. The first point is that piety and impiety are opposite. The next point is that the gods are in a state of discord. The next is that they are in discord over what is just and what is unjust. They have no set unit to measure it by. The next point is that the different gods consider different things to be just and unjust. From there he goes on to agree that some things are both just and unjust. Finally, he agrees that some things can be both god loved and god hated. T he same things would then be both pious and impious according to the argument above. The way that this argument relates to the rest of the Euthyphro starts back at the beginning of the story. Socrates sees Euthyphro standing by the courthouse and naturally asks why he is there. Euthyphro explains that he is the prosecutor in a murder trial. It turns out that it is his father that he is prosecuting for the murder of a murderer. He laments to Socrates that his family and friends believe that his doing this is impious, but he believes that they are mistaken and this reveals their ignorance of piety. Since Socrates is Socrates, this naturally leads him to ask just exactly what piety is.

The Services Directive Proposal

Of   course   the   fundamental   freedoms   set   out   in   the   Treaty   of   European   Union   are   central   to   the   success   and   functioning   of   the   EU   Internal   Market.Two   of   these   were   of   great   importance   for   the   Internal   Market:   freedom   of   establishment   (Article   43)   and   the   freedom   to   provide   cross   border   services   (Article   49).   While   the   former   provides   access   for   operators   to   practice   their   economical   activities   in   one   or   more   Member   States,   the   latter   enables   an   operator   providing   services   in   a   Member   State   to   do   the   same   in   another   Member   State   temporarily   without   being   obliged   to   get   established   there.[1]   Obviously   these   have   legal   implications.â€Å"This   means,   in   practice,   that   Member   States   must   modify   national   laws   that   restrict   freedom   of   establishment,   or   the   freedom   to   provide   services,   and   are   therefore   incompatible   with   these   principles.This   includes   not   only   discriminatory   national   rules,   but   also   any   national   rules   which   are   indistinctly   applicable   to   domestic   and   foreign   operators   but   which   hinder   or   render   less   attractive   the   exercise   of   these   â€Å"fundamental   freedoms†,   in   particular   if   they   result   in   delays   or   additional   costs.†Ã‚   [2]The   Internal   Market   has   effected   a   number   of   real   benefits   particularly   in   some   sectors   and   generally   in   providing   employment   and   freedom   of   movement   for   operators.â€Å"Overall,   the   Internal   Market   has   resulted   in   real   benefits.   For   instance,   in   the   10   years   since   the   completion   of   the   first   Single   Market   programme   in   1993,   at   least   2.5   million   extra   jobs   have   been   created   as   a   result   of   the   removal   of   barriers.The   increase   in   wealth   attributable   to   the   Internal   Market   in   those   10   years   is   nearly   â‚ ¬900   billion;   on   average   about   â‚ ¬6000   per   family   in   the   EU.   Competition   has   increased   as   companies   find   new   markets   abroad.   Prices   have   converged   (in   many   cased   downwards)   and   the   range   a nd   quality   of   products   available   to   consumers   have   increased.†Ã‚   [3]Later   in   1992   Jacque   Delor   proposed   and   implemented   a   programme   aimed   at   creating   a   single   market   by   eliminating   non-tariff   barriers   to   goods   trading.   Although   the   programme   has   been   beneficial   but   it   leaves   room   for   substantial   progress   in   order   that   services   can   be   offered   across   borders   smoothly.[4]In   2002   EU   commission   studied   the   numerous   barriers   that   affect   the   flow   of   services   across   the   borders   of   Europe.   It   was   found   that   these   barriers,   including   legal   restrictions,   difficulties   in   obtaining   the   required   authorisation   from   local   authorities,   an d   the   length   and   complexity   of   procedures,   made   it   almost   impossible   for   some   businesses   to   get   established   in   countries   other   than   their   origin.[5]However,   on   7   May   2003   the   European   Commission   implemented   its   Internal   Market   Strategy   for   the   period   of   2003-2006.â€Å"The   Strategy   concentrates   heavily   on   removing   many   of   the   barriers   that   prevent   businesses   in   the   services   sector   from   operating   across   Europe.   The   commission   views   improvements   in   this   sector   as   essential   to   meeting   the   targets   of   the   2000   Lisbon   package,   given   that   services   now   account   for   around   two-thirds   of   the   EU’s   GDP.†[6]The   Commission   als o   pointed   out   that   the   enforcement   of   EU   legislation   was   not   effective   in   a   way   that   it   itself   become   one   of   the   barriers.   Within   these   strategies   and   in   order   to   address   the   problem   of   removing   barriers   hindering   the   flow   of   services   within   the   Member   States,   the   Commission   proposed   a   Service   Directive   aimed   at   enabling   service   providers   of   the   Member   States   to   establish   themselves   and   provide   services   in   States   other   than   they   originally   come   from.In   January   2004   Frits   Bolkestein,   the   European   Commissioner   for   Internal   Market   at   the   time,   proposed   a   draft   of   the   Directive   on   services   in   the   Internalà ‚   Market;   today   commonly   referred   to   as   ‘Bolkestein   Directive’.[7]   The   Services   Directive   by   removing   all   the   barriers   hindering   the   movement   and   establishment   of   service   providers   with   the   EU   Member   States,   is   expected   to   â€Å"create   jobs,   boost   economic   growth   and   increase   quality   and   choice   for   consumers.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"The   consultants   Copenhagen   Economics   have   predicted   a   0.3%   rise   in   GDP   and   a   0.7%   increase   in   employment.   The   European   Commission's   estimates   point   to   a   1.8%   increase   in   GDP   and   2.5   million   new   jobs.†[8]Yet   the   Service   Directive   was   not   well   received.   Although   it   was   adopted   for   first   reading   in   February   2004,   opposition   in   different   countries   were   pronounced.   Countries   with   high   standard   of   social   protection   expressed   fear   from   the   consequences   of   cheaper   competition   from   the   foreign   market.â€Å"Some   countries   and   trade   unions   feared   this   would   lead   to   a   â€Å"race   to   the   bottom†,   with   firms   relocating   to   countries   with   lower   wages   and   the   weakest   consumer,   environmental   protection,   employment   and   health   and   safety   rules.†[9]Yet   the   most   disagreed   point   was   that   of   â€Å"country   of   origin   principle†Ã‚   which   allows   services   providers   to   operate   in   another   country   while   being   obliged   to   abide   only   by   the   laws   of   the   country   of   origin.[1]  Ã‚  Ã‚   EU   Single   Market:   General   Principles   available   at:   http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/services/principles_en.htm   accessed   on   15   January   2007 [2]   EU   Single   Market:   General   Principles   available   at:   http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/services/principles_en.htm   accessed   on   15   January   2007 [3]A   Single   Market   for   Services   available   at:   http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_19_en.htm   accessed   on   15   January   2007[4]   Can   Europe   Deliver   –   Research   by   Paul   Stephenson   –   Edited   by   Neil   O’Brien   (2006)   available   at:   http://www.openeurope.org.uk/research/services.pdf   accessed   on   15   January   2007 [5]   Can   Europe   Deliver   –   Research   by   Paul   Stephenson   –   Edited   by   Neil   O’Brien   (2006)   available   at:   http://www.openeurope.org.uk/research/services.pdf[6]   Services   Directive   background   available   at   :   http://www.smallbusinesseurope.org/en/basic_background319.htm   accessed   on   15   January   2007 [7]Directive   on   services   in   the   internal   market   –   From   Wikipedia,   the   free   encyclopedia   available   at:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_on_Service_in_the_Internal_market#column-one   accessed   on   15   January   2007[8]   Q&A:   Services   Directive,   Available   at:   http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4698524.stm   accessed   on   15   January   2007 [9]   Q&A:   Services   Directive,   Available   at:   http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4698524.stm   accessed   on   15   January   2007

How the Existence of Firms Shows That There Are Imperfections in the Market Essay

Introduction In 1776 moral philosopher and father of modern economy published his book â€Å"The Wealth of Nations† which singlehandedly changed the way we looked at political economy. The book, which was Adam Smith’s essay originally explaining why some nations are wealthier and more flourished than others, featured a few key insights. One of the most important ideas of the book was what he mentioned as the â€Å"invisible hand† of the economy, stating that market mechanism is perfect and there is no need for an outside intervention for it to function effectively. In his 1982 article â€Å"No need for morality: The Case of Competitive Market†, David Gauthier states that in a â€Å"perfect† market outside intervention will in turn adversely affect the market. However, to contradict this idea, Ronald Coase, in his influential essay â€Å"The Nature of the Firm†, suggested the idea that the existence of firm itself proves that the market mechanism is not perfect. In this paper, I am going to describe what Gauthier meant by a â€Å"perfect† market, how the existence of firm proves that there are imperfections in the market and an evaluation of both the theories. What is Gauthier’s idea of a â€Å"perfect† market? In his paper article â€Å"No need for morality: The Case of Competitive Market†, Gauthier describes the perfect market as having the following criteria: 1. Individual Endowment and Private Goods In the perfect market, the market is comprised of individual buyers and sellers, and they are all seeking to maximize their own utility. Goods are privately owned, hence ownership is fairly simple and direct. 2. Free market activity, mutual unconcern and the absence of externalities Individual buyers and sellers are free to make their own decisions and they will try to maximize their utility, regardless of the other party or parties’ concern. There are no external factors that can affect the market mechanism 3. Market is perfectly competitive and operating at an equilibrium This means that in the market after a transaction individual gain is assured, in that each can do as well as he/she can, given the other parties actions. Also, in an equilibrium, no one can be better off without someone else being worse off. (Gauthier 1982) Gauthier states that the buyers and sellers in a perfectly competitive market are rational and utility maximizing. Individuals are fully capable of maximizing gain and welfare through the market mechanism without the existence of firms or regulatory bodies. Imagine a rice market where individual sellers set up stalls for individual buyers to buy without the requirement of an outside intervention, that would be a perfectly competitive market. How does the existence of firms prove that the market is not perfect? In his paper Nature of the Firm, Ronald Coase addresses questions such as â€Å"Why do firms exist?† and â€Å"Why isn’t everything done by the market?† In his article he states how imperfections in the market lead individuals to form companies rather than trading bilaterally through short term contracts in the market. The central premise of his theory was that firms exist simply because transactions are cheaper when carried out internally (i.e. within a firm) rather than externally (Coase, 1937). He states that trading bilaterally in the market can impose a great deal of transaction costs, such as hiring workers, negotiating prices and forming short term contracts. Therefore a firm is a device or a nexus of long term contracts under a manager/entrepreneur who brings all the resources together under one roof. The main contrast between Gauthier’s market mechanism and Coase’s firms is that, individuals find is cheaper and more effective work in a hierarchical structure by forming a firm, rather than trading directly in the market. Ronald Coase quotes D.H. Robertson to provide an analogy for the existence of firms: â€Å"Islands of conscious power in this ocean of unconscious co-operation like lumps of butter coagulating in a pail of buttermilk.† Here, firms are the islands of conscious power, and the market is the ocean of unconscious co-operation, provides a good comparison for the two different mechanism. According to Gauthier’s, the utility maximizing buyers and sellers can individually profit more through operating directly through the market without the need for a hierarchical firm. In reality, the market is imperfect (i.e. utility cannot be maximized individually) and firms are the answer to these imperfections. Evaluation Gauthier’s view was not to prove that the market is perfect, but that if there was such a perfect market there would be no need for regulatory bodies or moral constraints. â€Å"Our concern is to show that morality has no place in an ideal context of interaction, not to claim that this ideal has direct practical application†, writes Gauthier. So his paper states the needlessness of morality in a perfectly competitive market, which does not exist in reality. Modern market is comprised of large corporations, which in turn disproves the idea that the market is not as perfect as Smith thought it to be. Adam Smith’s approach was to provide a simplistic answer to inefficient government intervention and bureaucracies, and to this day globalization, free market and specialization have been key to the success of our economy. Both Adam Smith’s and Ronald Coase’s literature have been put to question throughout, and their theories have been refined to meet the expectations of modern economics. However, their theories lay the fundamental groundwork for modern economic theory. The 2008 financial market crash is a great example of a situation where Smith’s â€Å"invisible hand† failed to protect the society’s welfare, where a handful of Wall Street investment firms fraudulently sold billions of dollars of worth securities to its clients, that lost its value overnight. The need for morality and external regulatory bodies, the existence of firms and modern corporate culture disproves the idea that the market is perfect. Bibliography Coase, Ronald. 1937. â€Å"The Nature of the Firm,† Economica, 4: 386-405 Gauthier, David. 1982. â€Å"No Need for Morality: The Case of the Competitive Market†. Philosophic Exchange, 3: 41-54

Historical and ethnographical study of rastafari religion

Historical and ethnographical study of rastafari religion The Rastafari people are a group of (primarily) men that originated in Jamaica, especially in and around Kingston, who believe in being repatriated to a designated homeland in Africa. Through their reinterpretation of the bible, an ascetic-leaning lifestyle, and heavy influence of previous Revivalist religions and African Myal traditions, they have carved a religion that is worldly, conscientious, and , now, world renouned. Icons such as Bob Marley, spliffs, their red, gold, and green flag, and their memorable accent make these people very interesting to listen to, and definitely assist in disseminating their belief structure throughout the world. In this paper I will briefly discuss their history, both ancient and modern, their belief structures, theological and material, and current and future trends in the movement today.Being the offspring of a revivalist religious movement in Jamaica in the 1930's, there is the obvious root tracing of the slave owner's Christian religion and the traditional African religion the slaves took with them from their homeland.English: 20 Jamaican dollars from 2000.In this case it is the Myal religion. They placed a large focus on the divination and local spirits in this religion and it carried over in the African religious interpretation of the imposed bible. The Christian focus was always on Jesus, while the Myal influence made the African slaves more focused on the Holy Spirit. They even placed John the Baptist over Jesus because it was John who brought Jesus to spiritual maturity through his baptism. Likewise this placed the focus of Christianity not on the orthodoxy, or knowledge of the religion, but the orthopraxy, the actual feeling and experience of the religion.Following a period of nearly 50 years of post-slavery Revivalism, particularly Zion and Pukumina, efforts in Jamaica, some of the adherents were growing tired of the obeah, or the carried over mysticism.

American Express Swot Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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